Cadmium telluride photovoltaics

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics is a photovoltaic (PV) technology based on the use of cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity.^[1] Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film technology with lower costs than conventional solar cells made of crystalline silicon in multi-kilowatt systems.^[1]^[2]^[3]

On a lifecycle basis, CdTe PV has the smallest carbon footprint, lowest water use and shortest energy payback time of any current photovoltaic technology.^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] CdTe's energy payback time of less than a year allows for faster carbon reductions without short-term energy deficits.

The toxicity of cadmium is an environmental concern during production and when the panels are disposed of. Some of this might be mitigated by recycling of CdTe modules at the end of their life time,^[8] as there are uncertainties regarding the recycling of CdTe modules^[9]^[10] and the public opinion is skeptical towards this technology.^[11]^[12] The usage of rare materials may also become a limiting factor to the industrial scalability of CdTe technology in the mid-term future. The abundance of tellurium—of which telluride is the anionic form—is comparable to that of platinum in the Earth's crust and contributes significantly to the module's cost.^[13]

CdTe photovoltaics are used in some of the world's largest photovoltaic power stations, such as the Topaz Solar Farm. With a share of 5.1% of worldwide PV production, CdTe technology accounted for more than half of the thin film market in 2013.^[14] A prominent manufacturer of CdTe thin film technology is the company First Solar, based in Tempe, Arizona.

^ ^a ^b "Publications, Presentations, and News Database: Cadmium Telluride". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
^ K. Zweibel, J. Mason, V. Fthenakis, "A Solar Grand Plan", Scientific American, Jan 2008. CdTe PV is the cheapest example of PV technologies and prices are about 16¢/kWh with US Southwest sunlight.
^ Further mention of cost competitiveness: David Biello, "Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology", Scientific American, April 2008.
^ Wikoff, Hope M.; Reese, Samantha B.; Reese, Matthew O. (2022-07-20). "Embodied energy and carbon from the manufacture of cadmium telluride and silicon photovoltaics". Joule. 6 (7): 1710–1725. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.006. ISSN 2542-4785. S2CID 250205824.
^ Jinqing Peng; Lin Lu; Hongxing Yang (2013). "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 19: 255–274. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.035. hdl:10397/34975.
^ V. Fthenakis; H. C. Kim. (2010). "Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14 (7): 2039–2048. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.03.008.
^ de Wild-Scholten, Mariska (2013). "Energy payback time and carbon footprint of commercial photovoltaic systems". Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells. 119: 296–305. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.08.037.
^ Fthenakis, Vasilis M. (2004). "Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production" (PDF). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 8 (4): 303–334. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2014.
^ Werner, Jürgen H. (2 November 2011). "Toxic Substances In Photovoltaic Modules" (PDF). postfreemarket.net. Institute of Photovoltaics, University of Stuttgart, Germany - The 21st International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference 2011 Fukuoka, Japan. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2014.
^ "Water Solubility of Cadmium Telluride in a Glass-to-Glass Sealed PV Module" (PDF). Vitreous State Laboratory, and AMELIO Solar, Inc. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-26.
^ "The Lowdown on the Safety of First Solar's CdTe Thin Film". greentechmedia.com. 2012-03-19.
^ Guest Column (2008-09-25). "Cadmium: The Dark Side of Thin-Film?". gigaom.com. Archived from the original on 2018-09-03. Retrieved 2014-12-21.
^ "NREL: Manufacturing Analysis - Supply Constraints Analysis". nrel.gov. 2014-01-23. Archived from the original on 2014-12-21.
^ Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Report, July 28, 2014, pages 18,19

[nrel-1-1] "Publications, Presentations, and News Database: Cadmium Telluride". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 23 February 2022.

[SciAm-2] K. Zweibel, J. Mason, V. Fthenakis, "A Solar Grand Plan", Scientific American, Jan 2008. CdTe PV is the cheapest example of PV technologies and prices are about 16¢/kWh with US Southwest sunlight.

[3] Further mention of cost competitiveness: David Biello, "Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology", Scientific American, April 2008.

[4] Wikoff, Hope M.; Reese, Samantha B.; Reese, Matthew O. (2022-07-20). "Embodied energy and carbon from the manufacture of cadmium telluride and silicon photovoltaics". Joule. 6 (7): 1710–1725. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.006. ISSN 2542-4785. S2CID 250205824.

[5] Jinqing Peng; Lin Lu; Hongxing Yang (2013). "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 19: 255–274. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.035. hdl:10397/34975.

[6] V. Fthenakis; H. C. Kim. (2010). "Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14 (7): 2039–2048. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.03.008.

[7] Wild-Scholten, Mariska (2013). "Energy payback time and carbon footprint of commercial photovoltaic systems". Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells. 119: 296–305. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.08.037.

[Fthenakis_303–334-8] Fthenakis, Vasilis M. (2004). "Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production" (PDF). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 8 (4): 303–334. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2014.

[9] Werner, Jürgen H. (2 November 2011). "Toxic Substances In Photovoltaic Modules" (PDF). postfreemarket.net. Institute of Photovoltaics, University of Stuttgart, Germany - The 21st International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference 2011 Fukuoka, Japan. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2014.

[10] "Water Solubility of Cadmium Telluride in a Glass-to-Glass Sealed PV Module" (PDF). Vitreous State Laboratory, and AMELIO Solar, Inc. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-26.

[11] "The Lowdown on the Safety of First Solar's CdTe Thin Film". greentechmedia.com. 2012-03-19.

[12] Guest Column (2008-09-25). "Cadmium: The Dark Side of Thin-Film?". gigaom.com. Archived from the original on 2018-09-03. Retrieved 2014-12-21.

[13] "NREL: Manufacturing Analysis - Supply Constraints Analysis". nrel.gov. 2014-01-23. Archived from the original on 2014-12-21.

[14] Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Report, July 28, 2014, pages 18,19

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