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Diverse views on women and their roles exist within Hinduism. The Devi Sukta hymn of the Rigveda declares feminine energy to be the essence of the universe, the one who creates all matter and consciousness, the eternal and infinite, the metaphysical and empirical reality (Brahman), the soul (supreme self) of everything.[1][2] The woman is celebrated as the most powerful and empowering force in some Hindu Upanishads, Sastras and Puranas, particularly the Devi Upanishad, Devi Mahatmya and Devi-Bhagavata Purana.[3][4][5]
Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts differ in their positions on the duties and rights of women. The texts describe eight kinds of marriage, including consensual arranged marriage (Brahma or Devic), unceremonial marriage by mutual agreement (Gandharva), and rape, which is considered sinful (Paishacha).[6][7] Scholars state that Vedic-era Hindu texts did not mention dowry or sati,[8][9] which likely became widespread in the second millenium AD.[10][11] Throughout history, Hindu society has seen many female rulers, such as Rudramadevi, religious figures and saints, such as Andal, philosophers, such as Maitreyi, and female practitioners/conductors of Vedic Hindu rituals.[12][13]
Hinduism, states Bryant, has the strongest presence of the divine feminine among major world religions, from ancient times to the present.[14] There are major goddess-centric Hindu traditions and denominations, such as Shaktism.[15][16] Numerous matriarchal Hindu communities exist.[13]
- ^ McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
- ^ Brown 1998, p. 26.
- ^ McDaniel 2004, pp. 90–92.
- ^ C. Mackenzie Brown (1990), The Triumph of the Goddess, State University of New York Press, ISBN , page 77
- ^ Thomas Coburn (2002), Devī Māhātmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805576, pages 138, 303-309
- ^ Rajbali Pandey (1969), Hindu Sanskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, ISBN 978-8120803961, pages 158-170 and Chapter VIII
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ssshashiwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Liljeström, Marianne; Paasonen, Susanna (8 March 2010). Working with Affect in Feminist Readings: Disturbing Differences. Routledge. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-134-01789-8.
- ^ a b Kramarae, Cheris; Spender, Dale (16 April 2004). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge. Routledge. p. 1059. ISBN 978-1-135-96315-6.
- ^ Bryant, Edwin (2007), Krishna: A Sourcebook, Oxford University Press, p. 441
- ^ David Kinsley (2005), Hindu goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-8120803947, pages 6-17, 55-64
- ^ Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 200-203
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