Level of measurement

Level of measurement or scale of measure is a classification that describes the nature of information within the values assigned to variables.^[1] Psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens developed the best-known classification with four levels, or scales, of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.^[1]^[2] This framework of distinguishing levels of measurement originated in psychology and has since had a complex history, being adopted and extended in some disciplines and by some scholars, and criticized or rejected by others.^[3] Other classifications include those by Mosteller and Tukey,^[4] and by Chrisman.^[5]

^ ^a ^b Kirch, Wilhelm, ed. (2008). "Level of Measurement". Encyclopedia of Public Health. Vol. 2. Springer. pp. 851–852. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5614-7_1971. ISBN 978-1-4020-5613-0.
^ Stevens, S. S. (7 June 1946). "On the Theory of Scales of Measurement". Science. 103 (2684): 677–680. Bibcode:1946Sci...103..677S. doi:10.1126/science.103.2684.677. PMID 17750512. S2CID 4667599.
^ Michell, J. (1986). "Measurement scales and statistics: a clash of paradigms". Psychological Bulletin. 100 (3): 398–407. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.100.3.398.
^ Mosteller, Frederick; Tukey, John W. (1977). Data analysis and regression : a second course in statistics. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0201048544.
^ Chrisman, Nicholas R. (1998). "Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography". Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 25 (4): 231–242. Bibcode:1998CGISy..25..231C. doi:10.1559/152304098782383043. ISSN 1523-0406. – via Taylor & Francis (subscription required)

[Koch_2008-1] Kirch, Wilhelm, ed. (2008). "Level of Measurement". Encyclopedia of Public Health. Vol. 2. Springer. pp. 851–852. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5614-7_1971. ISBN 978-1-4020-5613-0.

[Stevens_1946-2] Stevens, S. S. (7 June 1946). "On the Theory of Scales of Measurement". Science. 103 (2684): 677–680. Bibcode:1946Sci...103..677S. doi:10.1126/science.103.2684.677. PMID 17750512. S2CID 4667599.

[3] Michell, J. (1986). "Measurement scales and statistics: a clash of paradigms". Psychological Bulletin. 100 (3): 398–407. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.100.3.398.

[Mosteller-4] Mosteller, Frederick; Tukey, John W. (1977). Data analysis and regression : a second course in statistics. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0201048544.

[Chrisman-5] Chrisman, Nicholas R. (1998). "Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography". Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 25 (4): 231–242. Bibcode:1998CGISy..25..231C. doi:10.1559/152304098782383043. ISSN 1523-0406. – via Taylor & Francis (subscription required)

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